語言學(xué)期末總結(jié)

語言的結(jié)構(gòu)類型：（一）詞法類型：

1、孤立語：漢語、越南語、苗語、彝語2、屈折語：英語、俄語、德語、阿拉伯語

3、粘著語：土耳其語、維語、芬蘭語、日語、朝鮮語4、編插語：美洲語

（二）句法類型SVO、SOV、VSO

語言學(xué)學(xué)科的發(fā)展：（一）傳統(tǒng)語言學(xué)階段

1、語文學(xué)階段前4世紀~19世紀

1989年馬建忠《馬氏文通》開始真正開始語法研究2、歷史比較語言學(xué)階段

語言學(xué)開始走上獨立的學(xué)科道路

普通語言學(xué)的建立：德國洪堡特《論人類語言結(jié)構(gòu)的差異及其對人類精神發(fā)展的影響》（二）現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)階段1、結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)

索緒爾“現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)之父”《普通語言學(xué)教程》A、區(qū)分了語言和言語兩個重要概念。B、區(qū)分了內(nèi)部語言學(xué)和外部語言學(xué)。C、區(qū)分了語言的共時性（靜態(tài)）和歷時性（動態(tài)）。

D、提出了語言是一種表示意念的符號系統(tǒng)，認為語言符號能指和所指的聯(lián)系是任意

的。

E、強調(diào)在語言中各個要素及其構(gòu)成成分都處于組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系中。F、區(qū)分了詞語的意義和價值。每個語言單位都具有意義。G、認為語言是形式而不是實體。

布龍菲爾德、薩丕爾代表作《語言學(xué)》2、轉(zhuǎn)換生成語言學(xué)喬姆斯基

語言的功能語言的社會功能

一、語言是交際工具（核心）1、語言是人類特有的交際工具

人類語言和動物交際的根本區(qū)別：單位的明晰性、任意性、結(jié)構(gòu)的二層性（音義）、

開放性（無限創(chuàng)造）、傳授性、不受時地限制。

2、語言是人類最重要的交際工具3、語言是全民的交際工具二、語言是思維工具

思維總得用一種語言。民族、社會的勞動成果一旦固化，就可在此基礎(chǔ)上進行。三、語言是文化的載體

語言是文化的一部分，語言記錄文化、促進文化發(fā)展，文化影響語言發(fā)展。

語言是符號系統(tǒng)（一）語言的符號性

從語言內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)特征看，語言在本質(zhì)上是一種音義結(jié)合的符號系統(tǒng)語言符號的特點：

1、任意性：音義結(jié)合的任意性。語言是一個自足的開放的符號系統(tǒng)2、線條型：在語言交際中，語言符號只能一個接一個出現(xiàn)（二）語言的系統(tǒng)性

1、語言的構(gòu)成基礎(chǔ)：詞匯和語法

2、語言的層級體系：音位→音節(jié)→語素→詞→句子

3、語言的組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系：組、聚是語言的兩種根本關(guān)系。

語音和語義一、語音的特征

1、語音的生理特征：動力器官、發(fā)聲器官、共鳴器官2、語音的物理屬性：音高（調(diào)位）、音強、音長（時位）、音質(zhì)二、描述某個音，如[P]：雙唇、不送氣的清塞音三、音位

歸納音位的原則和方法（重要）

1、辨義功能。著眼于音位對立、替換法。先設(shè)置一個語音環(huán)境（）au，分別將n、l放入環(huán)

境中，比較兩者是否有區(qū)別。

2、互補分布。著眼于音位的非對立性。

3、語音相似。是對互補分布的補充、約束。如果互補分布的兩個音素感到差別明顯過大，

那么不屬于用一音位。音位系統(tǒng)：

1、全部音質(zhì)音位和非音質(zhì)音位

2、常見的變體其條件變體出現(xiàn)的條件3、音位間的對立關(guān)系

4、音位之間的組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系語流音變：

同化、異化、弱化、脫落、增音、減音、換位語法

（一）語法學(xué)分類：

1、根據(jù)研究對象不同，分為普通語法學(xué)與個別語法學(xué)普通語法學(xué)：以人類的各種語言的語法為研究對象，綜合研究他們的共同的語法特征的學(xué)科。個別語法學(xué)：以某一種語言的語法為研究對象，研究其語法特征的學(xué)科。2、根據(jù)研究內(nèi)容的不同，分為共時語法學(xué)和歷時語法學(xué)

共時語法學(xué)：是對語言發(fā)展的某個階段語法結(jié)構(gòu)的描寫和研究。歷時語法學(xué)：是從一個時代到另一個時代的發(fā)展進程中，對語言的語法結(jié)構(gòu)進行歷史的研究，又叫歷史語法學(xué)。

3、根據(jù)研究用途的不同，分為教學(xué)語法和其他語法如計算機語法

教學(xué)語法：指的是為進行語法教學(xué)而建立的一套語法規(guī)則體系。特點是規(guī)范、明確、簡潔、實用，不必復(fù)雜細致。

計算機語法：為計算機信息處理而建立的一套語法體系，精確、可靠、嚴密。著作：《語言論》（美）布龍菲爾德1933，《語法講義》朱德熙，《現(xiàn)代漢語語法研究》丁聲樹，《漢語語法分析問題》呂叔湘（二）語法范疇和語法手段

語法范疇：把具有相同性質(zhì)的語法意義抽象概括而成的類型，通過詞的形態(tài)來表達。1、性。名詞、代詞在語法上的性別類屬。

2、數(shù)。名詞、代詞所表現(xiàn)的事物或現(xiàn)象的量的特征。

3、格。名詞、代詞與句子中其他詞的關(guān)系。如賓格、主格、所有格。4、時。動詞的語法范疇，表示動作發(fā)生的時間與說話時的時間關(guān)系。5、體。動詞的語法范疇，表示動作的進行狀態(tài)或類型。6、態(tài)。又叫“語態(tài)”，表示動作與主體之間的關(guān)系。

7、人稱。動詞的語法范疇，表示說話者本人和所說的話中的動作行為主體之間的關(guān)系。8、式。動詞的語法范疇，說話人對所說內(nèi)容的主觀態(tài)度，又叫語氣。9、級。形容詞、副詞的語法范疇，表示性質(zhì)或?qū)傩缘某潭炔顒e。

語法手段：附加、內(nèi)部屈折、重疊、異根、重音移位、副助詞、詞序、零形式（三）詞法

1、構(gòu)形法：附加、重疊、內(nèi)部屈折、異根、重音移位2、構(gòu)詞法：附加法、復(fù)合法、簡縮法劃分詞類的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：

1、形態(tài)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：根據(jù)詞類變化來確定詞類。

2、功能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：一是詞與詞的組合能力，二是詞充當(dāng)句子成分的能力。

3、意義標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：指語法意義不指詞匯意義。漢語以功能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為主，以意義標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為輔。中國第一部現(xiàn)代漢語語法專著《新著國語文法》1989年《馬氏文通》馬建忠中國第一部語法學(xué)專著（四）句法

句法中的常用手段：語序、虛詞、形態(tài)，語調(diào)

句子成分分析法：又叫中心詞分析法。從句子的語法意義出發(fā)，對句子的結(jié)構(gòu)部分進行功能分析。它以句子內(nèi)部各個成分之間的意義為依據(jù)，在分析過程中，先找主干，再找枝葉。直接成分分析法：又叫層次分析法，由布龍菲爾德首先提出。認為句子是有層次的，一般切分到不能再分為止。

句式轉(zhuǎn)換的規(guī)則：移位、刪除、添加、復(fù)寫、替換多義或歧義產(chǎn)生的原因及其分化方法：

1、一種線性序列，多種組合層次。分化方法：層次分析法2、一種線性序列，一種組合層次。分化方法：標(biāo)明句法關(guān)系

3、一種線性序列，一種組合成分，一種句法關(guān)系，多種深層意義。分化方法：轉(zhuǎn)換分析法詞匯

概念：某種語言或方言中全部詞和固定詞組的總和

擴展閱讀：語言學(xué)期末總結(jié)

1Whatislanguage?Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1.verbalcommunication2.instrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingispurposeful3.socialandconventional.

2.Designfeaturesoflanguage識別特征Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.1Arbitrariness規(guī)約性referstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.2Duality二層性Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.3Creativity創(chuàng)造性meansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.4Displacement移位性Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

3Originoflanguage1.Thebow-wowtheory摹聲說Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.2.Thepooh-poohtheory感嘆說Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoywhichgraduallydevelopedintolanguage.3.The“yo-he-ho”theory育聲說Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.

4.Functionoflanguage1.Informative信息功能Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.2Interpersonalfunction交際Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.3Performative施為Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.4Emotivefunction情感Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.5Phaticcommunion寒暄Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.6Recreationalfunction娛樂Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.7Metalingualfunction元語言Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.5Whatislinguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageoralternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsisarichandexcitingfield.6Mainbranchesoflinguistics1.Phonetics語音學(xué)Phonology音系學(xué)Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)Syntax句法學(xué)Semantics語義學(xué)Pragmatics語用學(xué)

7Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.DescriptiveVS.Prescriptive描寫VS規(guī)定2Synchronicvs.diachronic共時vs.歷時Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Thefictionofsynchronicdescriptionisessentialtolinguistics.

１☆3Langue&parole語言vs.言語F.deSaussure，Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.4Competenceandperformance語言能力vs.語言運用alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.8Phonetics(語音學(xué))studieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.Articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語音學(xué)isthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué)isthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryphonetics聽覺語音學(xué)isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds

9Speech(vocal)organs(發(fā)音器官)arethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Itisstrikingtoseehowmuchofthehumanbodyisinvolvedintheproductionofspeech:thelungs,thetrachea,thethroat,thenose,andmouth.Pharyngealcavity咽腔Oral口腔Nasal鼻腔

Consonants輔音areproduced‘byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefrictionVowel元音:avowelisproducedwithoutsuch‘stricture’sothat‘a(chǎn)irescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.Coarticulation協(xié)同發(fā)音:Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.

Broadtranscription:寬式標(biāo)音Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Narrowtranscription嚴式標(biāo)音:Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.phonetictranscriptions音標(biāo):broadtranscription,narrowtranscription

10Assimilation同化:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofneighboringsound.Assimilationisoftenusedsynonymouswithcoarticulation.Ifafollowingsoundinfluencesaprecedingsound,itisregressiveassimilation逆同化:e.g.can,tan,tenth,ninth,sink,mink,gooseberry,raspberry,cupboard,fivepence,haveto,usedto,pancake,sunglass.Progressiveassimilation順同化istheconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundinfluencesafollowingsound,e.g.works,words,pears,writeslaughed,loved.11MorphemeandMorphology語素形態(tài)學(xué)

Morpheme:1.thesmallestunitoflanguage2.cannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunits3.alteringthemeaning.

Morphology:1.thesystematicstudyofmorphemeisabranchoflinguistics2.itstudiestheinternalstructureofwords3.andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

TypesofMorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorpheme2.Root,affix,stem3.Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix.

２Allomorph(語素變體)wordsshareacommonmorpheme（詞素）in~,inotherwords,il~,im~andir~areexceptionallythevariationformofonemorphemein~.allomorphsofthe

samemorphemeowingtotheinfluenceofthesoundstowhichitattaches.Otherinstancesaresuchasthevariationofpluralformsofnouns:-s,-es,-en,-ee-,-ceandves.{選擇判斷}12Lexicalchangeproper（構(gòu)詞法）1.Invention新創(chuàng)詞語Sinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.例nylon2.Blending混成法Blendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.例e-book,3.Abbreviation縮寫詞Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.例flu4.Acronym首字母縮寫Acronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.例CEO5.Back-formation逆構(gòu)詞法Back-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.例edit,6.Analogicalcreation類推造字Theprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.例workwroughtworked,7.Borrowin借用Englishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.例typhoon8Classshift詞性轉(zhuǎn)換Byshiftingwordclassonecanchangethemeaningofawordfromaconcreteentityornotiontoaprocessorattribution.例HOG，（N）apig(V)totakeandkeepforoneself.

13【選、填】Syntax(句法學(xué))referstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.

SyntacticRelations句法1.PositionalRelations句中詞語位置轉(zhuǎn)變2.RelationofSubstitutability(替代)例Theboy\\mansmiles.3.RelationofCo-occurrence(同現(xiàn))例Aprettygirlsmiles14【選、解】SenseRelations涵義關(guān)系

⑴Hyponymy上下義關(guān)系Itisamatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay,whenxisakindofy,thelowertermxisthehyponym,andtheuppertermyisthesuperordinate.Twoor

morehyponymsofthesameonesuperordinatearecalledco-hyponyms,e.g.underflower,therearepeony,jasmine,tulip,violet,rose,etc.,

⑵Antonymy反義詞It’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.isthenameforoppositenessrelation.

①.Gradableantonymy等級反義關(guān)系isthecommonesttypeofantonymy.e.g.good/bad

②.Complementaryantonymy互補反義關(guān)系Themembersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachother.Thatisnotonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive/dead,

③.Converseantonymy反向反義關(guān)系isaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities,e.g.parent/child,

３⑶Synonymy同義詞

isthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.例buyandpurchase

15Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)直接成分分析referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituentswordgroups(phrases),whichareinturn

analyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.

S22

NPVP

DetNVNP

DetN

Theboyatetheapple

AmericanStructuralism美國結(jié)構(gòu)主義TheLondonSchool1944ThePragueSchool(布拉格)時間1926內(nèi)容1.itseeslanguageintermsoffunction2.thedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology,1differenttypesoflinguisticdescriptionmayJ.R.Firthbeappropriatefordifferentpurposes.2.systemiclinguisticsthestructureofeachlanguageshouldbeBoasandSapirdescribedwithoutreferencetotheallegedL.Bloomfielduniversalityofsuchcategoriesastense,moodandpartsofspeech.linguisticsandfunctional代表Trubetzkoy16Endocentricconstructions(向心結(jié)構(gòu))Anendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.例如：“看書=看”，“說明白=說”。Exocentricconstructions（離心結(jié)構(gòu)）Theexocentricconstructionisdefinednegativelyasaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.例如“從上�！購摹偕虾！�，“飛的≠飛≠的”17Thereferentialtheory(指稱理論)Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory.18WhatisCognition認知⑴Mentalprocessesofanindividual,informationprocessing⑵Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.

【填、選】Threeapproachestothestudyoflanguageandcognition:⑴Theformalapproach⑵Thepsychologicalapproach⑶Theconceptualapproach

４19.Psycholinguistics心理語言學(xué)isthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage

Languageacquisition語言習(xí)得languageproduction語言輸出languagecomprehension語言理解

Children’sspontaneousspeech兒童語言習(xí)得1.Holophrasticstage、Two-wordstage、Stageofthree-wordutterances、Fluentgrammaticalconversationstage.

20TheSapir-Whorfhypothesis沃夫理論ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysof

understandingtheworld.理解Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheotherhand,similaritybetweenlanguageisrelative,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.

21SpeechActTheory(言語行為理論)isanutteranceasafunctionalunitincommunication

Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact行事行為理論1.Locutionaryact（發(fā)話行為）:AdistinctionismadebyAustininthetheoryofspeechactsbetweenthreedifferenttypesofacts

involvedinorcausedbytheutteranceofasentence.Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.2Illocutionaryact（行事行為）:Anillocutionaryactisusingasentencetoperformafunction.3Perlocutionaryact（取效行為:Aperlocutionaryactistheresultsoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsomething.22Language,CultureandSociety①Generally,therelationofLtoCisthatofparttowhole,forLispartofC.②Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinL.③languageisregardedasamirrorofsociety,throughwhichwecanunderstandsocialactivitiesofacertainsocietybetter.④functionally,societyprovideslanguagewithasuitablecontextofuse,inwhichwecanenjoyaspectsoflanguagevividlyandtruthfully

23TheCooperativePrinciple合作原則Indailyconversationpeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem；referstothe“co-operation”betweenspeakersinusingthemaximsduringtheconversation.Therearefourconversationalmaxims:(1)Themaximofquantity:(2)Themaximofquality:(3)Themaximofrelation:(4)Themaximofmanner:24ThreeSensesofword1.Aphysicallydefinableunit2.wordbothasageneraltermandaspecificterm3.Agrammaticalunit

25L.Bloomfield:1Helaidmuchemphasisontheobjectivityandsystematicityofobservabledatainhisstudyoflanguage.2linguisticsisabranchofpsychology,andspecificallyofthepositivisticbranchofpsychologyknownasbehaviorism.

５名詞解釋

Competence:Competenceisanencyclopediaoflanguage.Itisanessentialpartofperformance.Moreover,theknowledgeinvolvedincompetenceisgenerallyunconscious.

Complementarydistribution:Thedifferentallophonesofthesamephonemeneveroccurinthesamephoneticcontext.Whentwoormoreallophonesofonephonemeneveroccurinthesamelinguisticenvironmenttheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

Compositionalanalysis:Itdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents,orsemanticfeatures.Forexample,themeaningofthewordboymaybeanalyzedintothreecomponents:HUMAN,YOUNGandMALE.SimilarlygirlmaybeanalyzedintoHUMAN,YOUNGandFEMALE.

Conversationalimplicature:whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenershavetoassumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.However,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.

CaseGrammar:Itisanapproachthatstressestherelationshipofelementsinasentence.ItisatypeofgenerativegrammardevelopedbyC.J.Fillmoreinthelate1960s.Cohesion:TheCohesionshowswhetheracertaintagmemeisdominatingothertagmemesorisdominatedbyothers.

Displacement:Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconcepts,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.Distinctivefeatures:Itreferstothefeaturesthatcandistinguishonephonemefromanother.Ifwecangroupthephonemesintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout,thisfeatureiscalledadistinctivefeature.

Entailment:Itisbasicallyasemanticrelation(orlogicalimplication),anditcanbeclarifiedwiththefollowingsentences:a.TomdivorcedJane.b.JanewasTom’swife.Intermsoftruthvalue,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthesetwosentences:whenAistrue,Bmustbealsotrue;whenBisfalse,Amustalsobefalse.WhenBistrue,Amaybetrueorfalse.ThereforewecansayAentailsB.

FSP:ItstandsforFunctionalSentencePerspective.Itisatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterances(ortexts)intermsoftheinformationtheycontain..Hierarchicalstructure:Itisthesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNP,VPandPP.Horn’sQ-principle:1)Makeyourcontributionsufficient(cf.quantity);(2)Sayasmuchasyoucan(givenR).

ICanalysis:Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituentswordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.

Linguafranca:Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeaksdifferentnativelanguagesordialects.

６Locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.

LAD:ispositedbyChomskyinthe1960sasadeviceeffectivelypresentinthemindsofchildrenbywhichagrammaroftheirnativelanguageisconstructed.

Proposition:Itistheresultoftheabstractionofsentences,whicharedescriptionsofstatesofaffairsandwhichsomewritersseeasabasicelementofsentencemeaning.Forexample,thetwosentences“CaesarinvadedGaul”and“GaulwasinvadedbyCaesar”holdthesameproposition.Performative:Inspeechacttheoryanutterancewhichperformsanact,suchasWatchout(=awarning).

Reference:Itiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld;itisamatteroftherelationshipbetweentheformandthereality.Regionaldialect:isaspeechvarietyspokenbythemembersofaparticulargrouporstratumofaspeechcommunity.

Register:referstothelanguagevarietyappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituationsonwhichdegreesofformalitydepends.

Synchroniclinguistics:Itreferstothestudyofalanguageatagivenpointintime.Thetimestudiedmaybeeitherthepresentoraparticularpointinthepast;synchronicanalysescanalsobemadeofdeadlanguages,suchasLatin.Synchroniclinguisticsiscontrastedwithdiachroniclinguistics,thestudyofalanguageoveraperiodoftime.

Soundassimilation:Speechsoundsseldomoccurinisolation.Inconnectedspeech,undertheinfluenceoftheirneighbors,arereplacedbyothersounds.Sometimestwoneighboringsoundsinfluenceeachotherandarereplacedbyathirdsoundwhichisdifferentfrombothoriginalsounds.Thisprocessiscalledsoundassimilation.

Suprasegmentalfeature:Thephoneticfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalonesincludesstress,intonation,andtone

Syntax:Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.

Sociolinguistics:Definedinitsbroadestway,sociolinguistics,asubdisciplineoflinguistics,isthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.Itisconcernedwithlanguagevariation,languageuse,theimpactofextra-linguisticfactorsonlanguageuse,etc.

Tracetheory:Afterthemovementofanelementinasentencetherewillbeatraceleftintheoriginalposition.ThisisthenotiontraceinT-Ggrammar.It’ssuggestedthatifwehavethenotiontrace,allthenecessaryinformationforsemanticinterpretationmaycomefromthesurfacestructure.E.g.ThepassiveDamsarebuiltbybeavers.differsfromtheactiveBeaversbuiltdams.inimplyingthatalldamsarebuiltbybeavers.IfweaddatraceelementrepresentedbythelettertafterbuiltinthepassiveasDamsarebuilttbybeavers,thenthedeepstructureinformationthattheworddamswasoriginallytheobjectofbuiltisalsocapturedbythesurfacestructure.Tracetheoryprovestobenotonlytheoreticallysignificantbutalsoempiricallyvalid.

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